The world is making a necessary transition from fossil fuels to an energy system underpinned by renewable energy and lithium-ion batteries. As a result, demand for materials like lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, graphite, copper, and aluminum used to manufacture batteries and electric vehicles is growing exponentially. 1 In order to make the energy transition to be a just transition, "Big Lithium" needs to minimise its socioenvironmental impacts. The best way to reduce these impacts is to reduce overconsumption and build lower impact mineral and metal supply chains. There are challenges to achieving both of these goals.
The problem of overconsumption is often not discussed in productive ways but there is no doubt that overconsumption, by the wealthiest people in the wealthiest countries, is the root cause of the climate crisis. 2 Overconsumption is a nearly impossible problem to solve because it is a cultural, social, and economic problem, not a technical one. It is highly unlikely that people in the world's rich countries will voluntarily consume less. This means that the most useful lever for reducing the impacts of overconsumption is to reduce the amount of energy and materials required to support their overconsumption.
For example, electric vehicles being deployed in rich countries powered by lithium-ion batteries consume hundreds to thousands of times less physical material over their life cycle than gas-powered cars to provide the same overconsumed transport service. 3 The "dematerialisation" impact of batteries comes in three forms. First, unlike fossil fuels, batteries can be used thousands of times. Second, batteries can be powered by low-carbon energy like wind and solar. Third, the materials in batteries can be recycled and re-used.
While solar panels, wind turbines, and batteries do an excellent job of addressing the problem of fossil fuels and partially reduce the impacts of overconsumption, they still have social and environmental impacts, such as in the mining of materials and metals used to manufacture them. We believe that reduction of mining impacts, the reduction of overconsumption, and the acceleration of decarbonization can be achieved simultaneously using the following three-pronged strategy.
First, renewable energy policy must adopt an impact minimisation approach through the life cycle of renewable energy systems. Adopting an impact minimization mindset is the only way to address the impacts of overconsumption of the rich in the short term and to ensure that the energy transition offers as significant of a reduction of impacts as possible. For example, while electric vehicles are virtually always better alternatives to gas-powered cars in terms of life cycle carbon emissions, 4 they will always have negative impacts throughout their life cycle that have little to do with carbon. Water use, land use, increased risk of conflict or instability, contamination caused by mining by-products, 5 use of indigenous peoples' land without their free, prior and informed consent, 6 and urban sprawl 7 are among the social impacts of the life cycle of electric vehicles. Even the recycling of batteries uses water, land, and emits carbon dioxide both directly and in its own supply chains. These impacts must be minimized by making specific technical decisions in both process development and responsible sourcing of materials.
The second way to accelerate the energy transition is more radical. We believe that mining has to happen more in rich countries. Relying on materials sourced in faraway places means that consumers and regulators ignore the social and environmental impacts that enable their overconsumption. This has to change. Reducing overconsumption will become feasible when rich country governments approve more mines, allowing their citizens to experience the impacts of their overconsumption. This will reduce overall demand as more people can make more informed decisions to buy fewer vehicles, and instead favour living in denser cities with better public transit. Governments can use this narrative to advance policies that promote the reduction of urban sprawl which required mass adoption of low-density transportation in the first place.
The third way to achieve the most socially just energy transition is yet more radical. Instead of leaving building "Big Lithium" to the people of legacy mining companies who historically have seen communities and ecosystems as obstacles to their ability to buy superyachts, we need new mining companies that work with impacted people to minimise impacts and share benefits equitably.
This would be the ultimate praxis for those who prioritise people and the environment. To not start new mining companies would be selfish really, considering the impacts of mining on communities and sensitive ecosystems would likely be much higher if legacy mining companies stay in charge of building the supply chains for the new energy system.
Picture it: designs could be shared internationally to reduce corporate oligopoly and reduce development costs while planning for local recycling. 8 Auto manufacturers would love to buy materials from companies with these values, making them highly competitive against legacy mining companies. Recognizing the historical harm of mining on indigenous communities, the industry could operationalize the Potawatomi principle of "honorable harvest," 9 which says that we must take only what we need from the Earth. It is clear that we need to take the minerals that will power a renewable energy transition to avoid the worst effects of climate change, but we must not take more than we need.
In a scenario like this, "Big Lithium" could look radically different from "Big Oil". It could be an industry that truly exists to serve people and the environment.
The precedent is clear. Last month's cancellation of the Jadar Lithium Project by the Government of Serbia controlled by legacy mining company Rio Tinto 10 shows why new companies that prioritize people and the environment are needed. If Rio Tinto had not so recently destroyed a 40,000 year indigenous anthropological treasure to mine iron ore 11, they may have faced less backlash in Serbia. It may have been more likely that Jadar could have been built and the lithium desperately needed for decarbonization would have made it to the market. Development of Jadar may only be possible if a company that prioritizes people and the environment owns it in the future. Only then could there be trust.
"Big Lithium" will be built because it is unquestionably needed. But by who? If people who prioritise people and the environment want to see their values succeed, they should assume this mantle.
References
1 Pell, R. et al. Towards sustainable extraction of technology materials through integrated approaches. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment 2, 665-679, doi:10.1038/s43017-021-00211-6 (2021).
2 Wiedmann, T., Lenzen, M., Keyßer, L. T. & Steinberger, J. K. Scientists' warning on affluence. Nature Communications 11, 3107, doi:10.1038/s41467-020-16941-y (2020).
3 Mathieu, L. M., Cecilia From Dirty Oil to Clean Batteries: Batteries vs. Oil: A Systemic Comparison of Material Requirements. (European Federation for Transport and Environment AISBL, Brussels, Belgium, 2021).
4 Reichmuth, D. New Numbers Are In and EVs Are Cleaner Than Ever, < https://blog.ucsusa.org/dave-reichmuth/new-numbers-are-in-and-evs-are-cleaner-than-ever/?_ga> (2017).
5 Lèbre, É. et al. The social and environmental complexities of extracting energy transition metals. Nature Communications 11, 4823, doi:10.1038/s41467-020-18661-9 (2020).
6 Horvath, E. M., Amanda Romero. ‘Indigenous people's livelihoods at risk in scramble for lithium, the new white gold', < https://www.reutersevents.com/sustainability/indigenous-peoples-livelihoods-risk-scramble-lithium-new-white-gold> (2019).
7 Orsi, F. On the sustainability of electric vehicles: What about their impacts on land use? Sustainable Cities and Society 66, 102680, doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102680 (2021).
8 Ralph, N. A conceptual merging of circular economy, degrowth and conviviality design approaches applied to renewable energy technology. Journal of Cleaner Production 319, 128549, doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128549 (2021).
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10 Sekularac, I. Serbia revokes Rio Tinto lithium project licences amid protests, < https://www.reuters.com/business/retail-consumer/serbian-government-revokes-rio-tintos-licences-lithium-project-2022-01-20/> (2022).
11 Wahlquist, C. Juukan Gorge: Rio Tinto blasting of Aboriginal site prompts calls to change antiquated laws, < https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/may/30/juukan-gorge-rio-tinto-blasting-of-aboriginal-site-prompts-calls-to-change-antiquated-laws> (2020).
